From: jameskerlindsay
The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is widely recognized as one of the world’s most unstable and dangerous countries, having endured a perpetual cycle of conflict and violence over the past 30 years that has resulted in millions of deaths and displacements [00:00:00]. Rwanda has played a critical role throughout this period, with a recent UN report accusing Kigali of supporting an insurgency in eastern Congo [00:15:37].
The conflicts in the DRC illustrate the complex nature of warfare, often blurring the lines between interstate wars (traditional armed conflicts between countries) and intrastate conflicts (civil wars). What begins as an internal conflict can become a proxy conflict for outside parties or spill over to neighboring states [01:10:00].
Geographical Context
The Democratic Republic of Congo is located at the heart of Africa, bordered by nine countries: Zambia, Angola, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, South Sudan, Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Rwanda [02:20:30]. It is the 11th largest country globally and the second largest in Africa after Algeria, spanning 2.3 million square kilometers [02:41:00]. Its population is approximately 100 million, making it the fourth most populous state on the continent [02:52:00].
In contrast, Rwanda is significantly smaller, at just 26,300 square kilometers, which is barely one percent the size of the DRC [03:03:00]. Its population is about 13.5 million [03:20:00].
Colonial Legacy and Pre-Conflict Instability
The African Great Lakes region has a tragic history of exploitation, abuse, and conflict, despite its natural beauty [03:27:00]. The modern story of conflict in the region largely begins with the European scramble for Africa in the late 19th century [03:42:00].
Belgium took control of the Congo, initiating a horrific period of colonial rule marked by widespread atrocities and human rights abuses [03:47:00]. During World War I, Belgium also seized Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi) from Germany, administering it as a League of Nations mandate and later a UN trust territory [04:04:00]. Belgian colonial rule in Ruanda-Urundi was also brutal, compounded by a “divide and rule” policy implemented between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups [04:25:00].
Independence and Early Challenges
In 1960, Belgium granted independence to the Congo [04:48:00]. Two years later, Ruanda-Urundi separated into the Hutu-dominated Republic of Rwanda and the Tutsi-ruled Kingdom of Burundi [04:52:00]. All three newly independent nations faced significant problems [05:04:00].
The Democratic Republic of Congo was ill-prepared for independence, immediately plunging into a two-and-a-half-year civil war as the resource-rich province of Katanga attempted to secede [05:09:00]. In 1965, Joseph Mobutu, the army commander, overthrew the government. The country, renamed Zaire in 1971, became increasingly impoverished and corrupt under Mobutu’s brutal one-party dictatorship [05:29:00].
Neighboring Rwanda and Burundi also faced major issues. In Rwanda, tensions escalated as the Tutsi regime, initially supported by Belgium, gave way to Hutu control after independence, leading many Tutsi to flee [05:49:00]. In Burundi, a Hutu-led rebellion in 1972 resulted in government forces murdering up to 300,000 Hutu, an event many consider a “forgotten genocide” [06:04:00].
Catalyst: The Rwandan Genocide and Mobutu’s Downfall
By the mid-1990s, these regional tensions converged [06:20:00]. Mobutu’s 30-year rule, largely propped up by Western anti-communist support during the Cold War, weakened significantly after the collapse of the Soviet Union [06:24:00].
The direct catalyst for Mobutu’s downfall originated from Rwanda [06:41:00]. In April 1994, the assassination of Rwanda’s Hutu president sparked the Rwandan Genocide, which left over 800,000 Tutsi dead before Tutsi-led rebel forces overthrew the government [06:46:00]. Remnants of the Hutu regime fled across the border into Zaire, where they began to regroup with Mobutu’s support [07:05:00]. This prompted Rwanda and its ally, Uganda, to support Laurent Kabila, a leading Congolese political opponent [07:13:00].
The First Congo War (1996-1997)
This support culminated in a full-scale invasion of the DRC (then Zaire) in October 1996, marking the beginning of what is now known as the First Congo War [07:24:00]. The conflict was brief: by May 1997, Mobutu’s forces were defeated, and he fled the country, dying in exile months later [07:33:00]. Kabila took control, restoring the country’s name to the Democratic Republic of Congo, signaling an end to Mobutu’s three-decade dictatorial rule [07:44:00].
The Great War of Africa (1998-2003)
Hopes for democracy and stability in the DRC were short-lived [07:54:00]. Kabila faced criticism for his authoritarian approach, and many Congolese resented the foreign influence in the country [08:00:00]. As a result, Kabila ordered Rwandan and Ugandan forces to leave [08:08:00]. When they refused, these two countries, joined by Burundi, turned against Kabila [08:13:00].
The conflict then escalated dramatically as Kabila secured new allies from neighboring states, including Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe [08:19:00]. With Rwanda and Uganda also turning against each other, the conflict became known as the Great War of Africa, or Africa’s World War [08:31:00].
Peace talks in 1999 led to the establishment of a UN peacekeeping mission, but fighting continued [08:40:00]. The conflict ultimately ended when Kabila was assassinated in 2001 and succeeded by his son, Joseph Kabila [08:47:00]. This paved the way for another peace process, and the warring sides finally agreed to end the war in 2002 [08:55:00]. The effects were devastating, costing well over 3.5 million lives [09:03:00].
Aftermath and Lingering Instability
Despite the immense human cost, the DRC showed signs of recovery. Under a transitional government led by Joseph Kabila, foreign troops began to withdraw, and insurgents were integrated into the Congolese armed forces [09:11:00]. In 2006, Kabila was re-elected president [09:20:00].
However, many underlying political problems persisted. Kabila soon faced accusations of corruption and subverting democracy [09:25:00]. International observers questioned the results of the 2011 presidential elections, which again saw Kabila re-elected [09:36:00].
The most severe challenges emerged in the eastern provinces of North and South Kivu, bordering Rwanda [09:48:00]. A decade after the war officially ended, numerous insurgent groups continued to operate in the region, fighting for control of vital resources or against the Congolese or Rwandan governments [09:58:00].
The Rise of M23
In 2012, a significant new group emerged: M23, a militia composed mainly of mutinous Congolese Tutsi soldiers [10:10:00]. This group was crucially supported by the Rwandan government, which was still fighting Hutu groups based in the region [10:18:00]. However, this support was quickly halted as the United States and the European Union pressured Rwanda to cut ties due to reports of mass atrocities committed by M23 [10:28:00].
A peace deal was reached in 2013, with the Congolese government committing to security sector reforms and integrating M23 members into the national armed forces [10:41:00]. This led to a significant drop in the intensity of fighting, though other insurgent groups, including offshoots of Islamic State and the Lord’s Resistance Army, continued to operate in the East [10:54:00].
In 2018, the DRC held elections, and Felix Tshisekedi became the country’s new president in the first free and fair transfer of power in the country’s 60-year history [11:11:00].
Renewed Tensions and Ongoing Conflict
Despite these positive developments, concerns about the security situation in eastern Congo resurfaced as the DRC prepared for its next presidential elections in late 2023 [11:23:00]. The roots of the problem can be traced back to November 2021, when M23 resumed its activities, claiming the DRC government failed to reintegrate its fighters [11:39:00].
M23 quickly took control of significant territory in the East, causing hundreds of deaths and displacing 200,000 people [11:53:00]. The Congolese government’s accusations that Rwanda was again supporting M23, though fiercely rejected by Kigali, were later supported by a UN expert panel [12:04:00]. A report published in August 2022 accused Rwanda of aiding M23 and claimed Rwandan troops were operating in the DRC [12:17:00].
In an effort to de-escalate the crisis, the East African Community (EAC), which includes both the DRC and Rwanda, convened talks later that year, leading to an M23 ceasefire [12:29:00]. However, a June 2023 UN report insisted that Rwanda was still supporting M23 [12:43:00]. Although the Rwandan government vehemently denies these claims, the report has been endorsed by the UN Security Council’s three Western members: Britain, France, and the United States [12:56:00].
Speculation continues about a potential new formal war between the DRC and Rwanda [13:09:00]. While their armed forces and proxies are already engaged in fighting, international pressure aims to prevent further escalation [13:17:00]. With over 100 militias still operating near the border, Eastern Congo remains one of the most dangerous and unstable conflict zones globally [13:31:00].