From: jameskerlindsay
Britain and Spain are currently on the verge of a historic agreement concerning Gibraltar’s place in Europe, after several years of negotiations [00:00:06]. This deal aims to address issues created by Britain’s decision to leave the European Union [00:00:11]. While the agreement is expected to ease many day-to-day problems for Gibraltar, it will not resolve the 300-year-old dispute over this strategically vital territory [00:00:16].
Territorial disputes are common globally, with many being relatively recent products of decolonization in the latter half of the 20th century [00:00:47]. However, some disputes, like that over Gibraltar, are far older, stretching back centuries [00:00:55]. Countries often learn to coexist with these differences, which typically remain points of friction rather than immediate tension or conflict [00:01:00]. The situation for Gibraltar was disrupted by Britain’s departure from the European Union [00:01:11].
What is Gibraltar?
Gibraltar is a small, rocky peninsula located at the southern tip of Spain [00:01:44]. It measures 5 kilometers (3 miles) long by 1.2 kilometers (3/4 of a mile) wide, with a total area of 6.8 square kilometers (2.6 square miles) [00:01:49]. The population is currently 32,500 [00:02:02]. Gibraltar holds a strategic position overseeing the western entrance of the Mediterranean Sea and continues to house a British naval and air base [00:02:06].
A Long and Contested History
Early Inhabitants and Changing Hands
Archaeological evidence suggests Gibraltar was first inhabited by Neanderthals approximately 40,000 years ago [00:02:20]. In ancient times, it was known to the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks, with the latter referring to it as one of the “Pillars of Hercules” [00:02:27]. It later fell under Roman control as the Empire expanded into Iberia (modern-day Spain and Portugal) [00:02:37].
After being captured by the Visigoths in the fifth century, Gibraltar was conquered by the Umayyad Arab Muslims in 711 [00:02:44]. Tariq ibn Ziyad led this conquest, and “The Rock” was named Jabal Tariq, meaning “the Mountain of Tariq” [00:02:51]. For several hundred years, Gibraltar remained under Muslim Moorish rule and became heavily fortified [00:02:58]. As the Spanish gradually pushed back against Islamic control, the territory changed hands multiple times until it was finally captured by the Kingdom of Castille in 1462, eventually becoming part of a united Spanish Kingdom [00:03:05].
British Acquisition
Gibraltar remained under Spanish rule for two and a half centuries [00:03:21] until the War of Spanish Succession began in the early 18th century [00:03:26]. Following the death of the Habsburg King of Spain, Charles II, without an heir in November 1700, a major pan-European war erupted [00:03:32]. France and part of Spain supported a Bourbon claimant, while Austria, the Dutch Republic, and Britain backed a Habsburg claimant [00:03:38].
On August 4, 1704, a combined British and Dutch fleet, commanded by British Admiral Sir George Rooke, seized Gibraltar [00:03:52]. Although initially done in the name of Charles VI of Austria, Britain maintained control of the territory when the war concluded in 1711 [00:04:01]. Two years later, in 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht was signed [00:04:12]. Despite Spanish opposition, Article X of the treaty ceded Gibraltar to Britain “forever” [00:04:18]. Crucially, the treaty stipulated that if Britain ever wished to relinquish sovereignty, Spain would have the first right of refusal [00:04:25].
Spanish Attempts to Reclaim
Spain, however, refused to accept the loss of Gibraltar [00:04:34]. Britain steadily reinforced its position on The Rock over the following decades [00:04:39]. This culminated in 1779 when Spanish and French forces laid siege to Gibraltar during the American War of Independence [00:04:45]. Despite repeated assaults, they failed to breach defenses and eventually withdrew [00:04:55].
Growing British Significance
Having cemented its control, Gibraltar became increasingly significant to Britain, particularly as Britain expanded its naval power in the 19th century [00:05:04]. A crucial development was the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, which created a new route to India through the Mediterranean [00:05:15]. This made Gibraltar a central element of Britain’s imperial standing and an increasingly important trading station [00:05:24]. Its strategic importance was reinforced during both World Wars, as it was vital for controlling access to the Mediterranean and protecting British shipping routes and supplying Allied forces in North Africa [00:05:36].
Decolonization and Post-WWII Pressures
The end of the Second World War brought a shift in the debate over Gibraltar [00:06:01]. While still strategically crucial, the advent of decolonization brought its status into the international limelight [00:06:07]. The newly established United Nations placed Gibraltar on its list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, initiating a formal debate about its future sovereignty [00:06:16].
Spain became increasingly active on the matter [00:06:27]. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the Spanish Government, under dictator General Franco, pressured Britain to relinquish control [00:06:31]. Britain, however, argued that the people of Gibraltar had a right to self-determination and refused to discuss the matter without considering the Gibraltarians’ wishes [00:06:42]. In a 1967 referendum, 99% of Gibraltarians voted to remain under British sovereignty [00:06:54].
In line with UN calls for greater autonomy, a new constitution was unveiled in 1969, granting Gibraltar more control over its governance and establishing a parliament [00:07:01]. Madrid, furious at these changes, imposed harsh restrictions, including closing the land border [00:07:15]. This had significant economic and social effects, preventing Gibraltarians from freely traveling to Spain for work, shopping, or to see friends and family [00:07:23].
Thawing Relations and European Integration
Anglo-Spanish relations remained strained for several years, but the situation began to improve following General Franco’s death in the early 1970s [00:07:34]. As Spain transitioned to democracy, relations between London and Madrid started to thaw [00:07:44].
Early Agreements and Disagreements
In 1980, the sides reached the Lisbon Statement, committing to resolving the matter in friendship and cooperation [00:07:49]. However, Britain and Spain interpreted the statement differently; Spain saw it as paving the way for sovereignty discussions, while Britain viewed it as a means to end restrictions [00:07:59]. Consequently, little progress was made [00:08:11].
A new effort began in 1984, known as the Brussels Process, designed to facilitate Spain’s impending EU membership [00:08:16]. This process reinforced the idea that any settlement must come through dialogue and, crucially, saw Spain lift its blockade on Gibraltar [00:08:25].
Persistence of Issues within the EU
Even after Spain joined the European Union alongside Portugal in 1986, difficulties persisted [00:08:35]. Despite the border being open, disputes continued over border control, airspace, and territorial waters [00:08:42]. The creation of the European Single Market in 1993 and the introduction of the Schengen Area, which allowed for borderless travel across much of Europe, did little to ease matters for Gibraltar, as it was excluded [00:08:51]. Meanwhile, Spain used its EU membership to exert pressure on Gibraltar, for example, by raising concerns about low taxation and financial regulation in the territory [00:09:05].
By the turn of the millennium, the debate on Gibraltar appeared to be shifting, with Britain and Spain considering ideas for possible joint sovereignty [00:09:17]. However, this was short-lived, as another referendum in 2002 overwhelmingly rejected the idea, with 98.9% of Gibraltarians voting for continued exclusive British rule [00:09:32].
Despite this setback, practical progress continued [00:09:44]. In 2006, the Cordoba Agreement introduced practical improvements, including easier border crossings and more flights from Gibraltar’s airport [00:09:50]. This agreement also acknowledged the right of Gibraltarians to be included in any discussions about their future [00:10:02].
The Impact of Brexit
Everything changed in June 2016 when Britain held its referendum on EU membership [00:10:13]. While Gibraltar overwhelmingly voted to remain in the European Union, Britain narrowly voted to depart [00:10:20]. As negotiations began on Brexit, it became clear that separate discussions would be needed to manage complex issues arising for the three British territories with land borders to the EU: Gibraltar, Northern Ireland, and the British Sovereign Bases in Cyprus [00:10:29].
A primary concern was freedom of movement and border checks [00:10:50]. Within the EU, the frontier was open for people, goods, and services [00:10:55]. With the UK and Gibraltar outside the EU, this would change, despite an average of 15,000 people, many of whom are workers, crossing the border daily [00:11:00]. Introducing full border checks would be hugely disruptive [00:11:13]. Brexit also created various economic, trade, financial, and legal problems for Gibraltar [00:11:18].
Ongoing Negotiations
On December 31, 2020, just a month before Brexit, Britain and Spain reached an initial framework agreement for Gibraltar [00:11:26]. This agreement stipulated that any full deal would consider Gibraltar’s geographical situation, international legal status, special circumstances, and its relationship with Spain [00:11:35]. However, while this set a broad framework, the exact details have been extremely difficult to settle [00:11:49]. Despite reports that the sides are on the verge of a deal, a final agreement has yet to be found [00:11:59]. Reaching a final deal will be one of the first significant foreign policy tasks for Britain’s new Labour government, which took power on July 5, 2024 [00:12:13].
Current Status and Future Outlook
While a deal over Gibraltar will improve the day-to-day situation, it will not resolve the fundamental difference between Britain and Spain [00:12:25]. For the UK, the issue is rooted in the principle of self-determination; the British Government emphasizes that any change in Gibraltar’s status must be approved by its residents, who still wish to remain under British rule [00:12:33]. As long as this remains the case, Britain is likely to continue defending Gibraltar’s status as a British territory [00:12:50].
Meanwhile, Spain maintains its claim to sovereignty, arguing it has a historical claim to The Rock, which was unfairly seized in the early 18th century [00:12:56]. Although the Spanish Government has expressed willingness to accept some form of joint sovereignty, the Gibraltarians continue to reject this [00:13:09].
Ultimately, it seems challenging to reconcile these positions, at least for now [00:13:17]. Following Britain’s decision to leave the European Union, which exacerbated previously managed problems, the key is to minimize points of friction for Gibraltarians, London, and Madrid [00:13:24]. In this sense, some disputes are not settled but perpetually managed [00:13:42].